The Byzantine Empire had undergone many crests and troughs throughout its long history. One example is after the conquests of Justinian in the 6th century. At this time, the Byzantines were the undisputed rulers of the Mediterranean and had an empire that stretched from Anatolia all the way to the southern tip of Hispania in the west. The empire was truly on an upswing. However, within a few years after Justinian, large sections of Italy would be lost to Lombards, and the Visigoths would be making headway with making gains in southern Spain. As I stated in a previous blog post, the empire of Justinian was in a stronger position than that of Basil II’s empire. Justinian’s realm had suffered through plague and invasions, and yet it was more enduring that of Basil II’s empire. Despite the fact that Basil II’s empire was more integrated than that of Justinian’s, that empire would fall apart more quickly when it came under pressure from the Seijuk Turks. However, this is not to say that Basil II’s empire wasn’t a powerhouse in Medieval Europe.
Europe in 1000 AD was a continent that was undergoing some rapid changes. After a period of economic decline and stagnation after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there would be a period of growth and stability. However, in comparison to the Byzantines, the population of Europe was still small. For example, the city of Constantinople in 1050 AD is estimated to have had a population of around 350,000 people (Harris 112). It was among one of the top cities of the world and it had an influence that could not be paralleled by any other city in Europe at the time. In comparison, Medieval England, at this time, which was fending off attacks from Viking invaders, had a population of around 1 million people. That means that the city of Constantinople had around 1/3 of the population of England around its walls. Other estimates have the population numbers for the Byzantine Empire at around 12,000,000 inhabitants by 1050 AD. This was truly a populous empire that was the envy of all Europe at the time and would lead the way in economics, science and culture. Johnathan Harris in his excellent book, Constantinople: Captial of Byzantium, would describe the myth that Byzantines liked to construct about their city: “Conspicuous prosperity was very much part of the Byzantine myth, for visitors to Constantinople were as much amazed by its opulence as they were by the relics and the churches”(Harris 111). This myth about the wealth of Constantinople would be used very important in the usage of diplomacy by the Byzantines, who lavished upon foreign rulers, every silk and jewel they could get their hands on (Harris 111). The city had a strong foundation upon which to support such lavish luxury. According to Harris, the city had a superb system of aqueducts and cisterns that allowed for water to flow to the metropolis (Harris 112). In comparison with the rest of Europe, the citizens of the city probably had a varied and diverse diet. Harris describes how the many forums of the city were used for the selling of livestock (Harris 112). As he states, this was a city with the infrastructure to support itself in an age where subsistence was the norm (Harris 114). This infrastructure in just the capital city alone, which would be expected to have the best levels of expertise needed to maintain such a behemoth of a city. The Byzantines had a network of cities where they were able to sustain themselves and support greater levels of urbanization, which was a stark contrast to that of Europe.
One of the advantages that the Byzantines had in the 11th Century was that their economy was highly monetized. One of their biggest rivals, the Bulgarian Empire, had barely just begun to monetize their economy and relied mostly on a barter economy. In Western Europe for example, it was said that there was no gold coinage there until the 13th century (Harris 114). Coinage was a part of everyday life for those in the empire, and especially for those who were living in Constantinople and other major cities like Thessalonica. In comparison with their neighbors, this money economy meant that the emperors were able to draw upon the empire’s economy for tax revenue. The empire at this time had the most advanced economy in Europe and this meant that the empire would be the envy of the continent. It is said that during the reign of Basil II, the tax income was so high that he needed to build vaults to house it all (Harris 114). The empire was drawing in all sorts of people from immigration and would be utilizing their skills quite effectively. The empire of Basil II may not have been as big as that of Justinian’s, but it certainly was a prosperous land filled with opportunity for those willing to work for it.
This economy underlined a type of government that was rarely seen in Western Europe, where kings were spending much of their time trying to balance their authority with their squabbling nobles. In Western Europe, it was expected that the king was supposed to delegate much of his power to his nobles, who made up a patchwork of realms from which the king was supposed to be able to levy troops and get tax revenue. The Byzantine Empire was a very different beast all together. According to Johnathan Harris’ Byzantium and the Crusades, the empire was probably one of the most settled and prosperous in Europe (Harris 24). The emperor was considered to be the absolute authority in the realm. The emperor was expected to imitate god and was supposed to be charitable towards his subjects. Essentially, the emperor was supposed to be answerable to no one except God. Of course, things were more complicated than that. The Byzantines had a significantly more literate and educated society than that of their Western counterparts. In Western Europe, due to the lack of education, many of the people in administration were the clergy, due to their exposure to religious texts. This meant that there needed to be the existence of a secular bureaucracy that was trained to task of imperial administration. Very few emperors ruled without the help of this secular bureaucracy.
One of the main elements of this secular bureaucracy was that it was dominated by eunuchs. Being castrated was one of the ways a young man was able to enter the civil service. Because they were castrated, they could be more trusted with information due to being prohibited from taking the imperial throne. These bureaucrats of the times before the Crusades were men who were highly educated and had an education that was only really available in capital. This education included researching the ancient Greek texts such as Plato and Aristotle and becoming better at rhetoric. According to Harris, such men with an access to such a quality education were truly the elite of the elite. They probably numbered no more than 300 men in the empire that had this sort of education in comparison to the rest of the empire. This was truly an elite group compared to the rest of the population.
The Byzantine Empire was enjoying martial achievements in the 10th and 11th century. For many years, especially after the Muslim invasions of the 7th century, the Byzantines were on the defensive. This led to a military that was more about defending the remaining territories rather than going on the offensive. However, things changed in the 10th century. Due to the fragmentation of the Muslim Caliphate and a growing economy at home, the Byzantines could afford to go on the offensive against the Muslim powers. One of the most important conquests that occurred was the conquest of Crete in 960 AD. This was accomplished through the usage of new military tactics that were harnessed in the empire and artillery that was used to break the walls of the capital city, Chandax. This conquest was one of many that would occur. However, probably one of the most important conquests was the conquest of the Bulgarian state in the 11th century by Basil II. It involved several years of harsh fighting. Basil II and his army were resolute in the struggle and eventually defeated the Bulgarians at a decisive battle at Kleidon in 1014AD. It was said that at this battle, Basil II is said to have blinded many men. Of course, historians seem to be very much divided on whether this happened at all. Bulgaria was incorporated into the empire as a theme, which was the administrative unit of the Byzantine state. Basil II had a relatively light hand on the Bulgarians, in comparison to the harsh fighting that had preceded the annexation of the Bulgarian state. He allowed for the state church to remain, had local elites govern the theme and let them retain their barter economy as Bulgaria did not yet have a monetized economy. These were savvy moves that allowed for stability in the newly conquered territories.
The empire that existed at the time of the Battle of Manzikert was an empire that was in state of upswing not declining. However, this battle would change many things and result in a period of chaos for the Byzantine state.
Works Cited:
Harris, Jonathan. Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium, Bloomsbury Academic, London, 2017.
Harris, Jonathan. Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury Academic, 2014.
Byzantine-Empire.com 